Fossil Dating

Uranium and its compounds emit radiation at a constant rate independent of environmental conditions. Consequently, uranium is converted to lead in a highly predictable fashion. When the earth was formed, uranium was doubtless present as a component of all radioactive substances. By determining the relative quantities of lead and radioactive minerals in rocks, it was established that the greater the age of any given rock sample, the greater was the proportion of lead to radioactive materials. Calculation of the duration of the various geological eras has accordingly been based primarily on the half-life for conversion of uranium to lead. For example; it has been estimated that the Paleozoic (or primary) era lasted for about 300 million years. This method of dating is referred to as radio chronology.

Life in the Cambrian oceans:
The Cambrian period, this began some 600 million years ago is the first period in the Paleozoic era. Despite its antiquity, numerous traces of it have remained in the fossil record. We know that there were many aquatic organisms during this period, including the unicellular forms, algae and multicellular animals, such as sponges, coelenterates, worms, shellfish and crustaceans. When there is only single cell, it must perform all the vital activities like feeding, respiration and movement. However, several cells are grouped together in a single organisms, division of labour can take place, permitting greater efficiency. By developing this principle to an ever-increasing degree, animals have progressively achieved higher levels of perfection.
One dominant characteristic of many of the living organisms of the Cambrian period is bilateral symmetry, similar to the found in human beings: the body can be divided along the mid-line into two halves which are virtually images.
The Cambrian was also a very important period for the evolution of plants.

International Beverages:

Barley:


A cereal plant that is immeasurably old is Barley (Hordeum). Even in antiquity its grains (which contain starchy protein, sugars and fats) were boiled and roasted. Two-row barley is generally grown throughout the temperate zone of the world. It grows at high altitudes, in the Himalayan up to 4,000m above sea level.

Barley was known to the Asiatics at least 7,000 years ago. For the Egyptians and Romans, barley was less valued as a cereal. They did not grow it as a cereal but for its malt for making beer. In Rome, barley bread was provided for the poor, the gladiators and soldiers.

On the other hand, fermentation barley was popular. The grains are first allowed to germinate. The sprouts are then removed and the malt is dried. It is then crushed, mixed with warm water, boiled, cooled and beer yeast Saccharomyces is added and liquid is left to ferment. The fermentation process changes the sugar in the young into alcohol. It is allowed to mature for several weeks or months according to the strength and quality desired.

However, barley is linked to a much stronger alcoholic beverages—the well known Whisky. This drink of Scottish origin dating from 15^th century was, and still is manufactured by cereal mainly barley.

Good whisky is stored from 7 to 10 years to mature.

Green tea:

In addition to the Holly (Ilex aquifolium) which is used as Christmas decoration, there are several useful of this plant in South America, especially the mate shrub (Ilex paraguariensis). A tea prepared from its leaves is the daily drink of the people living in South America.

The dried, crushed green tea leaves yerba matte have smoky smell. Like true tea, it affects the nervous system, having a calming effect while sharpening the senses.

It contains sugar, traces of essential oil and vanilla.

Black Lemonade:

The American soft drink coca-cola is one of few drinks drunk all over the world. But while everyone knows what they are drinking and they do not always know what it contains. The name of the dark drink with its quantity of bubbles in instantly recognizable.

The basis of this soft drink comes from the seeds of a West African tree, the Cola acuminata. This tree and also the Cola vera and other sps are grown in the Brazil and Africa. The raw material for this drink is seeds often called nuts.

The seeds contain tannic acid, starch, proteins and sugar. The drink made from them is stimulating and refreshing. The chemical contained in coffee and tea bushes as well as coca bush, is natural insecticide.

Narcotics:

Betel:

South- East Asia provides another intoxicant. Here local people seek out the leaves of Betel (Piper betle). They spread the dampen leaves with quick lime from shells and snails. Then they wrap up in the leaf a piece of the betel nut, the fruit of palm Areca catechu.

There are 650 sps of the pepper plant growing in the Asian and American tropics. The ‘nut’ which is wrapped for chewing in the betel leaf, is the seed of the palm Areca catechu. The unripe seeds contain a red dye and brown tannic acid. Together, they color the saliva red and turn teeth black. By chewing the bitter tasting lump, a chemical is released. It stimulates digestion and alleviates tiredness.

Fiery water:

Spirit is a strong, intoxicating drink, which is very popular amongst white people. This strong form of alcohol, obtained from plums and other fruit. We find first mention made by Aristotle. The Arab physician Jabir, the father of alchemy, known also under the Latinized name of Geber, describes a distillation process and the manner in which the fumes of heated wine, when cooled turns into liquid.

The alchemists looked upon pure alcohol obtained through distilling as a most valuable “herbal quicksilver”. With the expansion of technology in the 18^th and 19^th centuries, the production of spirits was also expanded. A quantity of kinds and brands, many of them still existing to this day, came into being. They were the result of the distilling of various fermented fruits such as apricots, peaches, grapes, apples, palm and rice wines, cherries rowan berries , juniper berries, raspberries, wheat and also honey and spices.

One of the well- known spirits is plum is brandy made from distilling of fermented plums.

Genetic variations The Royal Disease

On March 27, 1884, one of Queen Victoria's sons fell down some stairs at a yacht club in southern France.
The accident was minor; Prince Leopold suffered nothing more than a few bumps and bruises. But the 31-year-old Duke of Albany had hemophilia, a disorder that prevents the blood from clotting. His injuries triggered massive internal bleeding. Within 24 hours he was dead.
Leopold was the first of Queen Victoria's descendants to die of hemophilia; but he wasn't the last. Once science had revealed the cause of the disease it became clear why - though Victoria never suffered from hemophilia herself, she carried a genetic mutation that causes the condition and passed it on to several of her offspring.
Hemophilia is a perfect example of how genetic diseases and traits can run in families, popping up across the generations in ways that appear random - but in fact are quite predictable.

The X Factor
Hemophilia almost always strikes males, for reasons that become clear once the genetics of the disease are known. Blood clotting requires the proper functioning of a gene that lies on the X chromosome. Women inherit two X chromosomes, one from each parent; but men get only one X, from their mothers. In lieu of a second X, their fathers give them a Y chromosome, which contains the genes that confer maleness.
That means women always inherit two copies of the blood-clotting gene, one from each parent. If one is faulty, the other will do the job just fine. But men get only a single version of the blood-clotting gene. If that one happens to be faulty, there is no backup.
In Queen Victoria's case, both of her parents appear to have had correctly functioning blood-clotting genes. But due to a copying error during reproduction one of hers was dysfunctional. Such spontaneous mutations are uncommon, but far from unheard of - they pop up in about one person out of 50,000.
Victoria passed her deficient blood-clotting gene to only one of her sons - the unfortunate Leopold. But she also passed it to two of her daughters, Beatrice and Alice.

The Next Generations
Leopold, Beatrice and Alice had 12 offspring in all. Leopold's boys were unaffected, because they got their X chromosomes - and thus their blood-clotting genes - from their mother. But two of Beatrice's sons and one of Alice's inherited the faulty version of the X. Alice's son Frederick died as a young boy after smashing through a window. Beatrice's son Leopold bled to death at the age of 32 during a knee operation. Maurice, her other hemophiliac son, escaped a similar fate only because he was killed instantly by an exploding shell during World War I.
On the female side, Leopold and his sisters had four daughters who inherited the faulty X chromosome and spread it widely through the royal houses of Europe. During the early 20th century princes of Spain, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain suffered from what became known as "The Royal Disease."

What about the royals of today? Oddly enough, Victoria's deficient blood-clotting gene never made it beyond the fourth generation. By sheer luck, none of Victoria's great-great granddaughters in Spain or Britain inherited it. In Prussia she had only great-great grandsons. And none of her Russian great-great granddaughters ever had any children; all four were murdered during the Bolshevik revolution.

Your Family
When you and other family members join 23andMe, you can use our tools to trace the inheritance of genes in your own pedigree. You can compare yourself with siblings or cousins to see which genes you both inherited from the same parent or grandparent. Though few inherited traits are as easily traced through a family tree as hemophilia.
23andMe's Family Inheritance tools can certainly help you explore some of your own family's distinctive characteristics.

visit: www.23andme.com

Genetic variations The Story of Muggsy Bogues

When Tyrone "Muggsy" Bogues was growing up, no one expected him to be an NBA star. At only 5' 3", Muggsy was short, putting him at a serious disadvantage in a league where the average height is 6' 7". But he ignored the naysayers, and went on to have a successful basketball career despite the odds stacked against him. During his 16-year career in the NBA, Muggsy became a fan favorite - a symbol of hard work, drive, and determination. "I always believed in myself," he told Hank Hersch of Sports Illustrated. "That's the type of attitude I always took out on the floor, knowing that I belonged; that with my talents, my abilities, there's a place for me out there."

The Genetics of Height

Height is determined partly by genes and partly by additional factors, such as whether a person had a healthy diet while growing up. But the genetics of height is complex. One recent study found that numerous genes influence a person's height [1]. The most conclusive study to date pinpointed an individual gene that influences the trait, but it accounts for only a centimeter of a person's stature - a tiny fraction of the total variation in human height [2]. As more studies are conducted, we will almost certainly discover more about the genetic basis of height.

Genetics is Not Your Destiny
The good news is, genetics isn't necessarily destiny. The story of Muggsy Bogues is a clear example of why genes alone cannot predict a person's effectiveness or success in a certain activity. Muggsy Bogues used his strengths - quickness, speed, and explosiveness - to his advantage.
When he was growing up, Muggsy and his friends practiced dunking using open-bottomed milk crates hung on the Baltimore playground fences. It was at high school where Bogues earned his catchy nickname, "Muggsy", a reference to his physical style of play.
Muggsy was a standout collegiate player at Wake Forest University, where he set an Atlantic Coast Conference record for assists. He was drafted in the first round of the NBA and led the Charlotte Hornets to the playoffs in 1992 and 1995. Following his NBA career, Muggsy went on to become the coach of a women's NBA team, the Charlotte Sting, where he was shorter than all of the female players he coached.
Muggsy's storied career demonstrates that with hard work and determination, you can beat the odds and accomplish your goals. As he once told the children's magazine Highlights for Children, "You can't dwell on what people think you can't do."

References:
[1] Visscher et al. (2007) "Genome partitioning of genetic variation for height from 11,214 sibling pairs." Amer J Hum Genet 81(5):1104-10.
[2] Weedon et al. (2007) "A common variant of HMGA2 is associated with adult and childhood height in the general population. Nat Genet 39(10):1245-1250.

Pheromone

Communication or transfer of information among animals is essential for their survival. Many animals have been studied for their unique and remarkable ways of communication. The bird songs have been heard by everyone; in the stillness of night cricket mating calls are easily audible. The humpback whales have been identified as world’s greatest singers and composers; the monkeys and apes have now been extensively studied for languages. The animals communicate by making gestures or facial expressions and postures for example; a dominant rhesus will walk confidently, sprawl, and carry the tail up. The animals can communicate mating willingness by exhibiting feathers, genitalia, barking, or sniffing each other.

Almost all animals in the animal kingdom communicate through chemicals produced by glands within the body. Hediger (1944) first reported the significance of odour in communication; this specialized communication includes smell or scent and pheromones. Exchange of information through pheromones or through scent is considered a primitive form of communication, because as animals evolved they depended more and more on other elaborate and much specific visual, auditory and vocal forms of communication, still he animals can communicate complicated messages through chemicals, they can mark and identify their territories, pathways, conspecifics, rivals, defeated animals, pups, and sexual partners through them. When chemicals are used for communication among conspecifiecs they are pheromones.

The role of body scent in human sexual behavior has attracted much attention. In 1971 Maclintock maintained notes on the menstrual cycles of 130 girls of a hostel and observed LEE BOOT EFFECT. i.e. synchronization in onset of their menstrual dates, the reason assigned was body smell. It has also been reported that a female living with a male, has relatively shorter menstrual cycle, because of body smell of male has an effect on female’s reproductive physiology.

Study of pheromones has given much information to perfume industry. Some of the popular perfumes contain animal scents!!!!!!!!

THE MYSTERIOUS POWER OF MAGIC....

Deadly nightshade: Atropa bella donna is a perennial tall plant found I deciduous woods and hedgerows. However, it contains highly poisonous substances.
        
            The Greek philosopher Theopastrus, wrote about deadly nightshade calling it mandragoras. It was an essential ingredient in the soothing ointments or salves of witches in the Middle Ages.
The most effective and magical part of deadly nighshade was the root. However, obtaining it involved great danger. Whoever wanted to get the thick root had to dig it up at midnight.

           The root was also worn against bare skin, to bring luck in card playing. The root could even promote love- if girl was carrying it she could charm whoever she wished.

           Sometimes, deadly nightshade was used against the bite of a mad dog. It was also given in powder form to horses to make them lively and give them a shining coat. In the countries of southern Europe, young girls drooped the juice of the berries of nightshade into their eyes to make them large and shining. Hence the plant’s Italian name bella donna meaning lovely lady.

THE MYSTERIOUS POWER OF MAGIC

The Witches’ kitchen: The entire Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) is highly poisonous. It contains chemicals which strongly irritate the nerve centre, expand the eye pupils, and induce delirium, hallucinations and visions. In the end they cause death.
          
           IN THE SUPERSTITIOUS MIDDLE AGES, the curative properties of henbane were suppressed by its ‘magic’ properties. Henbane became one of the chief compartments of the legendary magic healing ointments and love potions pocula amtoris. Witches, who it was thought existed in large numbers, spread the paste on their temples, under their armpits, and over the private parts of their bodies. The toxic paste made them fall into trances, in which they hallucinated. They thought they saw unbelievable events: they imaginated themselves flying through the air and they saw devils and made love Satan.
      
          When the age of witchcraft and devils came to an end in the 17th century henbane was more or less forgotten and was scorned as a dangerous toxic plant.

          Then in 1821, Frenchman Brendes discovered another chemical in henbane alkaloid hyosciamine. The plant is now a valuable raw material in the production of tranquilizing and sleep- inducing drugs, and in the treatment of nervous diseases and stomach ulcers.
 

Beauty inside our body.

These match-like structures are found in the brain and secrete a substance that cushions the brain and spinal cord against shock.



Rose petals scattered on a scarlet divan? This is actually the lin ing of the rectum.
 


This bead-like structure with its projecting legs is a nerve cell. It sends signals and commands to and from the brain. 


This dirty-looking surface is actually a healthy tooth. The cells in the green layer produce enamel, which protects the tooth

The surface of the tongue is rough due to these paillae, which contain the taste buds and send tactile information to the brain.



Here the blood cells are traveling along a vein within the liver. The images are provided by the Science Photo Library.

Anthrax.

The threat of anthrax as a biological weapon has become a real concern for everyone. Anthrax is a disease caused not by a virus, but rather by bacteria. There aren't any known cases of anthrax passing from one person to another, so it is considered to be noncontiguous. It is still a large threat, however, because if it isn't recognized and treated quickly enough it can be deadly. Bacillus anthracis is the bacterium that causes the disease anthrax. It has historically affected herbivores like cattle, sheep or other grazing herds, but has also been a threat to humans who work with these animals and their by-products.
While in the ground or on a surface, anthrax spores are relatively harmless, but once they come into contact with the right environment they begin to germinate. They need an environment that is rich in amino acids, nucleosides and glucose -- like those elements found in blood and other tissues in humans or animals. Once there, a series of changes takes place that can make these bacteria deadly to its host.
In this edition, we'll look at what anthrax is and how it affects the body. We'll also discuss new research and ideas for treatment and prevention of the anthrax disease.
Where does it come from?
Anthrax is found all over the world. It contaminates the ground when an affected animal dies. It spreads when grazing animals pick it up from contaminated dirt or through contaminated food sources such as bone meal that may have been made from contaminated carcasses. There appears to be an increase in the cases of anthrax among grazing animals during droughts, when they tend to graze closer to the ground and consume more dirt with the grass.
Anthrax may also spread when carnivorous animals, such as vultures or even insects, feed on affected herbivores. The bacteria are then transferred to other areas by the host and contaminate the ground when that animal dies. As the animal decays, the bacteria are exposed to oxygen and turn back into the spores that contaminate the soil. The anthrax spores have a very tough outer casing and can remain viable in the ground for decades.
Anthrax cycle
Many diagnostic laboratories around the world have anthrax samples for use in research and for the identification of anthrax. Anthrax can be grown in laboratories from these existing spores. In the wrong hands, these spores can be grown, dried and milled for use in biological weapons.
How Does it Spread?
Anthrax spores can enter the body through:
Inhalation into the lungs (inhalation anthrax) - The spores can be inhaled in contaminated soil or other particles containing the spores. The spores have no smell, taste or color, so a person would not notice anything had happened unless the spores had been mixed into a substance that could be readily seen, smelled or tasted. In order to enter the lungs, where they can germinate, the spores have to be very small -- from 1 to 5 microns (millionths of a meter). According to an anthrax report published by the American Medical Association, at least 2,500 spores have to be inhaled to cause an infection.
Inhaled anthrax
Entry into a cut or opening in the skin (cutaneous or skin anthrax) - Open cuts and scrapes can allow entry of the spores into the body to an environment in which they can germinate. This type of anthrax may also be spread by biting insects that have fed on infected hosts. The head, arms and hands are most often affected. People who handle contaminated animal products such as leather, hair (particularly goat hair) and wool are often exposed to the anthrax bacteria. Cutaneous anthrax accounts for about 95 percent of cases worldwide. If untreated, it has a fatality rate of five to 20 percent. If treated with antibiotics, it rarely leads to death.
Cutaneous anthrax
Entry through the gastrointestinal tract (gastrointestinal anthrax) - Eating undercooked meat that is infected with the anthrax bacteria, or drinking unchlorinated water that harbors the spores, can introduce the bacteria into the gastrointestinal tract. Infection can occur in either the upper or lower GI tract. This form of anthrax is rare.
Gastrointestinal anthrax
What Happens When it Enters the Body?
When viewed at the cellular level, an anthrax bacterium looks like a jointed bamboo rod. When it enters the body and finds the environment it needs, it moves to the lymph nodes. From there it begins to multiply and produce a toxin that attacks human cells resulting in hemorrhaging, swelling, a drop in blood pressure and ultimately death.
Anthrax bacteria (Bacillus anthracis), stained
The way it attacks the cells and exactly what it does was in question for many years. Research that began in the mid 1980s has revealed some interesting facts about the behavior of the anthrax bacterium when it finds a host.
Researchers found that there are three proteins that are created by the anthrax bacteria. These proteins are harmless individually, but together can be deadly. These proteins are referred to as:

Protective antigen (PA)
Edema factor (EF)
Lethal factor (LF)When these proteins are released, the protective antigen binds to the cell surface and forms a type of channel in the cell membrane that allows the edema factor and lethal factor to enter the cell. The edema factor, when combined with the protective antigen, forms a toxin known as the edema toxin. The lethal factor, when combined with the protective antigen, forms a toxin known as the lethal toxin. It is the lethal toxin that does the most damage within the cell.
Research in 1998, by George Vande Woude at the National Cancer Institute in Frederick, MD, revealed clues to what the lethal toxin does to the cells. He found that the lethal factor cuts enzymes in two -- the enzymes that are responsible for transmitting signals within the cells. He also identified the enzyme in question. He was studying the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, which helps control cell growth, embryonic development and the way oocytes (eggs) mature. He was specifically looking for information about what the pathway actually did in the oocyte maturation cycle, so he searched for compounds that blocked the activity of the MAPK. A database search lead him to the lethal factor.
It is still not completely understood why disrupting the signal transmission within the cell results in the symptoms anthrax generates, but research continues. Research is also being done to find ways to alter the protective antigen to disable its ability to allow the entry of the lethal and edema toxins into cells.
The Symptoms of Anthrax
In its bacterial state, anthrax survives outside of a proper host environment for only about 24 hours. But inside the body, where it gets the nutrients it needs to grow, anthrax germinates and spreads rapidly.
Inhalation Anthrax
Inhaled anthrax typically begins showing symptoms in seven to 10 days, although it could be as early as two to three days. It can take as long as 60 days after exposure to the anthrax spores for the disease to surface, however, and once the germination begins, the disease progresses very rapidly. It appears to come in two stages:
It begins with fever, cough, headache, vomiting, chills, weakness, abdominal pain, shortness of breath and chest pain. This first stage may last from a few hours to a few days. Then there may be a brief break in symptoms.
The second stage of the disease lasts anywhere from two to four days. The symptoms for the second stage include fever, difficulty breathing, sweating, a bluish discoloration of the skin, shock, and finally death.
Cutaneous Anthrax
Cutaneous anthrax, which occurs when the anthrax spore is deposited into a break in the skin, may occur as late as 12 days after exposure. The germination of the bacteria results in local swelling of the skin -- a small papule (bump) will appear. The following day the bump will enlarge into an ulcer and begin discharging a clear fluid. Then, a painless, depressed black scab will form that will dry and fall off within one to two weeks. Treatment with antibiotics may not change the appearance or formation of the bumps, but they decrease the chances that the disease will become systemic.
Gastrointestinal Anthrax
The gastrointestinal form of anthrax, which occurs from eating or drinking infected meats or water, brings about symptoms that include nausea, vomiting blood, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, and weakness. Death occurs in 25 to 60 percent of these cases.
Diagnosis and Treatment
According to an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association, a blood sample is taken from the patient and cultured for six to 24 hours. At this point, a "Gram stain" can be done. The Gram stain highlights the bacteria.
Anthrax bacteria in Gram stain
The Gram stain takes about 10 to 15 minutes and can identify whether the bacteria come from the anthrax category. At that point, biochemical testing can be done to find the specific anthrax bacteria, which takes another 12 to 24 hours. Usually, the specimens have to be sent to national reference laboratories for comparison with stock anthrax samples.

Treatment
Anthrax is treated with the antibiotics penicillin, ciprofloxacin or doxycylcine. The antibiotic most often used is ciprofloxacin, partly because of rumors that the Soviet Union had developed a penicillin-resistant form of anthrax for use in biological warfare. It is also specifically recommended by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in treating anthrax.
Treatment of inhaled anthrax has to start very early in the progression of symptoms. If treatment is begun after the symptoms have progressed too far, then the bacteria may be killed but the toxins remain in the body.

Vaccine and Treatment Research
The vaccine that was developed in the 1950s (licensed in 1970), is currently only given to military personnel, people who work directly with anthrax in research labs, and those who work with animals and animal by-products that may be infected with anthrax. The vaccine uses the anthrax protective antigen to make the body create immunity to the disease. It is created from a strain of anthrax that does not cause the disease, and doesn't use any live or dead whole bacteria. There is a separate vaccine for use in animals. (That vaccine can't be used in humans.)
The side effects of the anthrax vaccine include:
Mild local reactions at the site of the injection (like with many other vaccinations)
Occasional, moderate local reactions that include redness, swelling and tenderness, often at the site of the injection and extending up to 5 inches (13 cm) across the area
Large local reactions larger than 5 inches, including swelling of the forearm and at the injection site
Muscle aches, joint aches, headaches, rash, chills, fever, nausea, loss of appetite, and weakness for a few days after the vaccination (experienced in up to 35 percent of people who get the vaccine)
A severe allergic reaction (appears once in every 100,000 doses)
A severe reaction that requires hospitalization (appears once in every 200,000 doses)

Research
Studies by R. John Collier and his colleagues at the Harvard Medical School have uncovered a possible therapy that can be used both as a vaccine and as a treatment for anthrax after the fact (particularly when antibiotics were not administered quickly enough).

This research was based on the previous findings by George Vande Woude and others at the National Cancer Institute in Frederick, MD, that identified the role of the protective antigen in allowing the lethal factor and the edema factor to enter the cell and begin wreaking havoc. Collier's research involved mutating the protective antigen to prevent this transfer. Experiments have suggested that even a single protective antigen mutant can disrupt the entire process. This treatment has worked in rats exposed to anthrax, but it is still not known how long after exposure the treatment could be given and still be effective in stopping the disease.

Because mutant protective antigen also appears to bring about an immune response (at least in rats), it has the potential to be a vaccine as well as a treatment. If successful, this approach could also be used for other diseases.

Do you know!!!!!!!!!!!!

Aletta Jacobs, (1878) founded the first birth control clinic in Amsterdam.

The first U.S. birth control clinic, was opened (1916) by Margaret Sanger, but was closed by the police and she received a 30-day jail sentence.

The semen is a mixture of secretions (over 90%) of seminal vesicles and prostate glands and sperms from testes (less that 10%).

A common belief that Coca-Cola as an effective spermicide is false.

The clitoris of female is homologous to the glans penis of males.

The lemon halves were used to stop sperm from making it into the uterus. (They acted as diaphragm and spermicide)

A pessary is most commonly used to treat prolapsed of uterus.

IMPORTANT DAYS AND WEEKS.

 
Epilepsy week.                           19 – 25th June.


Organ Donor Week                   8 – 14th Aug.


Stroke awareness week           5 – 11th June.


World Diabetes Day                 14th Nov.


World Food Day                        16th October.


World Heart Day                      24th Sept.


World Health Day                       7th April.


World Mental Health Day        10th Oct.


World No Tobacco Day            31st May.


World AIDS Awareness Day    1st Dec.

IMPORTANT CANNED FOODS

A stock clerk was sent to clean up a storeroom in Maui, Hawaii.
When he got back, he was complaining that the storeroom was really filthy and that he had noticed dried mouse or rat droppings in some areas.
A couple of days later, he started to feel like he was coming down with stomach flu, complained of sore joints and headaches, and began to vomit.
He went to bed and never really got up again. Within two days he was severely ill and weak. His blood sugar count was down to 66, and his face and eyeballs were yellow. He was rushed to the emergency at Pali-Momi, where he was diagnosed to be suffering from massive organ failure. He died shortly before midnight.
No one would have made the connection between his job and his death, had it not been for a doctor who specifically asked if he had been in a warehouse or exposed to dried rat or mouse droppings at any time. They said there is a virus (much like the Hanta virus) that lives in dried rat and mouse droppings.

Once dried, these droppings are like dust and can easily be breathed in or ingested if a person does not wear protective gear or fails to wash face and hands thoroughly.
An autopsy was performed on the clerk to verify the doctor's suspicions.
This is why it is extremely important to ALWAYS carefully rinse off the tops of canned sodas or foods, and to wipe off pasta packaging, cereal boxes, and so on.
Almost everything you buy in a supermarket was stored in a warehouse at one time or another, and stores themselves often have rodents.
Most of us remember to wash vegetables and fruits but never think of boxes and cans.
The ugly truth is, even the most modern, upper-class, super store has rats and mice. And their warehouse most assuredly does!
Whenever you buy any canned soft drink, please make sure that you wash the top with running water and soap or, if that is not available, drink with a straw.
The investigation of soda cans by the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta discovered that the tops of soda cans can be encrusted with dried rat's urine, which is so toxic it can be lethal. Canned drinks and other foodstuffs are stored in warehouses and containers that are usually infested with Rodents, and then they get transported to retail outlets without being properly cleaned.
 

Some Interesting Facts

 Here are some interesting, but true facts that you may or may not have known.
The Statue of Liberty's index finger is eight feet long
Rain has never been recorded in some parts of the Atacama Desert in Chile
A 75 year old person will have slept about 23 years.
A Boeing 747's wing span is longer than the Wright brother's first flight. (The Wright brother's invented the airplane)
There are as many chickens on earth as there are humans.
One type of hummingbird weighs less than a penny
The word “set” has the most number of definitions in the English language; 192
Slugs have four noses
Sharks can live up to 100 years
Mosquitoes are more attracted to the color blue than any other color.
Kangaroos can't walk backwards
About 75 acres of pizza are eaten in the U.S. Everyday
The largest recorded snowflake was 15in wide and 8in thick. It fell in Montana in 1887
The tip of a bullwhip moves so fast that the sound it makes is actually a tiny sonic boom.
Former president Bill Clinton only sent 2 emails in his entire 8 year presidency
Koalas and humans are the only animals that have finger prints
There are 200,000,000 insects for every one human
It takes more calories to eat a piece of celery than the celery had in it to begin with.
The world's largest Montessori school is in India, with 26,312 students in 2002
Octopuses have three hearts
If you ate too many carrots, you'd turn orange
The average person spends two weeks waiting for a traffic light to change.
1 in 2,000,000,000 people will live to be 116 or old
The body has 2-3 million sweat glands
Sperm whales have the biggest brains; 20 lbs
Tiger shark embryos fight each other in their mother's womb. The survivor is born.
Most cats are left pawed
250 people have fallen off the Leaning Tower of Pisa
A Blue whale's tongue weighs more than an elephant
You use 14 muscles to smile and 43 to frown. Keep Smiling!
Bamboo can grow up to 3 ft in 24 hours
An eyeball weighs about 1 ounce
Bone is five times stronger than steel.

Artificial Sweeteners

Introduction to How Artificial Sweeteners Work
If you're trying to lose weight, avoiding sugar is one of the best ways to reduce your intake. Many dieters use artificial sweeteners and artificially sweetened foods as a way to cut sugar without eliminating all things sweet. However, not all artificial sweeteners are calorie free. In fact, some have almost as many calories as sugar. They're also somewhat controversial. Although the manufacturers' Web sites and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) say that artificial sweeteners are perfectly safe, some consumer groups and physicians disagree.
Even if you try to avoid artificial sweeteners, you may still be consuming them in products you've never considered. Did you know that artificial sweeteners are in your toothpaste, mouthwash, chewable vitamins and cough drops?
In this article, we'll look at how artificial sweeteners came about, how they're used and how they're approved. We'll also examine the individual sweeteners and learn about the controversies surrounding them.
Sweet Thing
Stevia, sold under the brand name SweetLeaf®
Sweetness doesn't just come from sugar -- there are hundreds of organic, synthetic, and inorganic compounds that taste sweet. Many plants contain sugar derivatives known as glycosides. Stevia, for example, is a plant high in glycosides that has been used for centuries to sweeten foods and drinks.
The degree of sweetness we taste depends on how well the receptors in our tongue interact with the molecules. The stronger the interaction, the sweeter we perceive the taste.
Taste scientists at a company called Senomyx have identified the taste bud receptor that is responsible for finding what we consider "sweet." Sugar and artificial sweeteners bind to this receptor, creating the sweet sensation that we get when we eat them. The receptors are found on the surfaces of cells all over the tongue and inside the mouth. They send messages to the brain to tell it that we're eating something sweet.
Artificial sweeteners are compounds that have been found to elicit the same (or a similar) "sweet" flavor we get from sugars. Some are low-calorie because they so much sweeter than sugar that only a tiny amount is needed. Others are low-calorie (or no calorie) because our bodies can't metabolize them. They simply pass through our digestive system without being absorbed.

Next, we'll learn about the history and use of artificial sweeteners.
Stevia
Stevia is a natural sweetener. It is extracted from a plant native to Brazil and Paraguay and has been used as a sweetener in other countries for centuries. Stevia is roughly 300 times sweeter than sugar and is not metabolized by our bodies, so it has no calories.

While advocates of Stevia quote studies that show no adverse reactions or effects of the sweetener, other studies have shown that Stevia may lead to lower production of sperm and fewer and smaller offspring. The FDA has not approved Stevia for use in food, but it can be sold as a supplement.

Artificial Sweetener Basics
The first artificial sweetener, was discovered in 1879 by a scientist who failed to wash his hands before dinner and noticed that his fingers tasted sweet. Other artificial sweeteners have also been discovered simply because scientists licked their fingers while testing a new drug or smoked a cigarette that was placed near a sweet-tasting compound. Poor personal hygiene has been the dieting industry's windfall.
These laboratory discoveries underscore the fact that these sweeteners are artificial, regardless of how they're advertised. Splenda®, the newest sweetener, has been sued by the sugar industry for trying to make people think it is more natural than it really is. In a study by the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), 57 percent of people thought Splenda was a natural product, not an artificial sweetener.
Why are there so many different artificial sweeteners? The answer is that there is no one sweetener that can be used in every product that calls for sweetness. Sucralose (Splenda), for example, is used in baked goods because it can withstand heat. Aspartame is found in "light" and sugar-free dairy products like yogurt. Sugar alcohols like xylitol and sorbitol are routinely used in sugar-free ice cream. The tricky part about sugar alcohols is that while they don't affect blood sugar or promote tooth decay, they have almost as many calories as sugar.
In addition to "light" and "sugar-free" food products, you can find artificial sweeteners in liquid and chewable medications (particularly children's medications), throat lozenges, cough drops, chewable vitamins, toothpaste, mouthwash, and anything else that could benefit from a little sweetness but shouldn't use sugar. Some products that could use sugar use artificial sweeteners simply because they're less expensive. A recent report from the Food Commission (UK) found that some orange sodas that were not marketed as "diet" were using blends of artificial sweeteners. Aspartame costs only two cents per liter of beverage, compared with six cents per liter for sugar.
If you don't want to ingest artificial sweeteners, you'll have to check ingredient labels and make sure you know the "real" names as opposed to the product names.

Next, we'll look at some of the controversy surrounding artificial sweeteners.
Sweet Future
Scientists at Senomyx are trying to find chemicals that enhance the efficiency of the sweetness receptor. They have a lab full of tiny manufactured taste buds that glow green when in contact with sugars. By testing different chemicals for sweetness by using the "taste buds," they hope to find the one that will taste like sugar but without the aftertaste -- and hopefully without side effects.
Artificial Sweetener Controversy
Fear of artificial sweeteners rose shortly after the first sweeteners were introduced in the food market. When public health trends, such as an increase in certain types of cancer, show up, scientists look to newly-introduced substances. Saccharin and cyclamate have been around the longest, and both were eventually linked to cancer in laboratory mice and rats. Studies associating saccharin with bladder cancer may have spurred the long-term perception that all artificial sweeteners could cause cancer. The press is often blamed for reporting on possible carcinogenic effects without having the scientific evidence to back it up.
In addition to cancer, thousands of Web sites and forums have information on other dangers and side effects associated with aspartame, sucralose, and other artificial sweeteners. Multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors, nervous disorders and other health problems have been blamed on them. Aspartame is getting most of the criticism, but sucralose is also under scrutiny.
The FDA stands behind the products that it has approved. A question and answer page on the FDA Web site includes the following:
All consumer complaints related to the sweetener [aspartame] have been investigated as thoroughly as possible by federal authorities for more than five years, in part under FDA's Adverse Reaction Monitoring System. In addition, scientific studies conducted during aspartame's pre-approval phase failed to show that it causes any adverse reactions in adults or children. Individuals who have concerns about possible adverse reactions to aspartame or other substances should contact their physicians.
Medical groups such as the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association also approve of the use of artificial sweeteners by diabetics and for weight control.
If diet soft drinks and sugar-free foods are readily available, why are so many people still overweight? A recent study by researchers at Purdue University found that drinking diet soft drinks might actually be part of the problem. Professors in the Department of Psychological Sciences found that artificial sweeteners may interfere with the body's natural ability to "count" calories. Our bodies' ability to match how many calories we need with how many calories we take in is partially based on how sweet a food is. The sweeter and denser it is, the higher it is in calories. Our bodies use this as a gauge to tell us when to stop eating.

Artificial sweeteners, however, throw a wrench into this process. By eating and drinking foods and beverages that use artificial sweeteners (and therefore have lower calories), we may be retraining our bodies to no longer associate sweetness with higher calories. That means that when we eat or drink foods sweetened with real sugar, our bodies miscalculate the true calories associated with that food. As a result, we consume more calories.
In the Purdue study, rats that had been given both artificially-sweetened liquids and sugar-sweetened liquids for 10 days proceeded to eat more of a sugar-sweetened (high-calorie) chocolate snack than rats that had been given only the sugar-sweetened liquids for 10 days. The rats that experienced the inconsistent relationship between sweet taste and calories had lost some of their ability to compensate for the calories in the food.
The National Soft Drink Association argued that the study was flawed and that many other studies showed that the use of low-calorie sweeteners does promote weight loss.
In the next section, we'll discuss how artificial sweeteners make it in the food chain.
From Lab to Kitchen
The Delaney Clause in the Food Additives Amendment of 1958 states that no food additive can be considered safe if it is found to induce cancer when ingested by humans or animals. This is tested by feeding large dosages of the additive (in this case artificial sweeteners) to small numbers of rats and mice.
Large dosages are used to compensate for the fact that a relatively small number of animals are used -- perhaps a few hundred. The large dosages also compensate for the possibility that rodents may be less sensitive to the chemical than people might be. Although it may seem that only a large dose of any chemical can cause cancer, small doses can too -- just less often.
Companies that want to market a new sweetener (or any food additive) must petition the FDA for approval, unless the new sweetener is made up of components generally recognized as safe (GRAS). The FDA usually requires strong evidence, including animal studies, to show that the sweetener will not cause harmful effects if humans consume unexpected quantities of it. Companies may also submit studies of the additive's affect on humans.
When deciding whether an additive should be approved, the FDA considers its composition and properties. For instance, does the sweetener break down into harmful by-products? What is the amount likely to be consumed, and what are the probable long-term effects? Because they can't determine absolute safety, the FDA has to decide if the sweetener is safe based on the best scientific knowledge available.
If a sweetener is approved, the FDA determines the types of foods in which it can be used, the maximum amounts to be used, and how it should be identified on food labels. It is then said to be GRAS. They FDA continually monitors consumption as well as any new research on the sweetener's safety to assure that its use continues to be within safe limits.
The Adverse Reaction Monitoring System (ARMS) serves as an ongoing safety check for all food additives. The system monitors and investigates all complaints that are believed to be related to specific food additives. If reported adverse reactions represent a real public health hazard, the FDA will take action.
Next, we'll take an in-depth look at some artificial sweeteners, starting with saccharin. What's Legal?
There are four legal categories under the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) for substances added to foods:
Food additives: Substances with no proven safety track record have to be reviewed and approved by the FDA before they can be used in any food product
Generally recognized as safe (GRAS): Substances that do have a proven track in foods based on a history of use before 1958 or on published scientific evidence do not need to be approved by the FDA prior to use
Prior-sanctioned: Substances that were assumed to be safe by either the FDA or the U.S. Department of Agriculture before 1958, to be used in a specific food
Color additives: Dyes that are used in foods, drugs, cosmetics, and medical devices must be approved by the FDA before they can be used
Saccharin
Cyclamate
Cyclamate was accidentally discovered in 1937 by a graduate student at the University of Illinois. It is 30 to 50 times sweeter than sugar. The FDA banned cyclamate in 1970 after reports that it caused cancer in animals, but there is currently a petition for re-approval.
Cyclamate is still used in over 50 countries, including Canada (where it is the sweetener in Sweet n' Low). Ironically, saccharin is banned in Canada except for use by diabetics.
Basics
Saccharin (the Latin word for sugar) is a synthetic chemical that was discovered in 1879 and was the first artificial sweetener. Two chemists at Johns Hopkins University discovered saccharine when a vessel boiled over in the lab where they were creating new chemical dyes from coal tar derivatives. One of the chemists forgot to wash his hands before eating and noticed that his fingers tasted sweet. Saccharin is 300 times sweeter than sugar and not metabolized by the body, so it has no calories.

Use
There are very few products that contain saccharin these days. Fountain Diet Coke® and Pepsi® use a blend of saccharin and aspartame, as does Tab®. It's also still available as Sweet 'N Low®, a tabletop sweetener in the familiar pink packet.
Controversy
Saccharin has had a very controversial past. The FDA tried to ban it in 1977 because some animal studies showed that it caused cancer (mainly bladder cancer, but also uterine, ovarian, skin, and others). Saccharin stayed on the market because of pressure from the diet food industry (and the dieters themselves). However, it carried a warning label that stated it had been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals until the late 1990s. The Calorie Control Council argued that people don't develop bladder cancer in the same way that rats do, so the warning label should be removed.
Tab is one of the few products
On the market to contain saccharin.
In 2000, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) stated that people who used saccharin had no greater risk of bladder cancer than the population as a whole. People who were heavy saccharin users (six or more servings of saccharin or two or more 8-ounce servings of diet drink daily) had "some evidence of an increased risk of bladder cancer, particularly for those who heavily ingested the sweetener as a tabletop sweetener or through diet sodas." Because of this study and other research with laboratory animals, it was decided that saccharin was not a major risk factor for bladder cancer in humans. Saccharin was removed from the NIH's list of carcinogens and Congress agreed to remove the warning requirement from products containing it.
Next, we'll learn about aspartame, another controversial sweetener.
Aspartame
Basics
Aspartame (sold under the brand names Equal®, NutraSweet®, and NatraTaste®) is derived from a combination of two amino acids: aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It was discovered in 1965 by chemist Jim Schlatter of the pharmaceutical company G. D. Searle & Co. (now a part of Pfizer). Schlatter licked his finger to pick up a piece of paper while testing a new anti-ulcer drug.

Aspartame is 180 to 200 times sweeter than sugar, so only very tiny amounts are necessary to sweeten a food or beverage. When digested, aspartame breaks down into three components: aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and methanol (wood alcohol).
People with the rare genetic disorder phenylketonuria (PKU) should avoid aspartame because their bodies are deficient in the enzyme that breaks down phenylalanine. If they consume foods or beverages containing significant amounts of phenylalanine, it can build up in their bodies and can cause mental impairment and possibly brain damage. Newborns are routinely checked for PKU.
Use
Because aspartame breaks down in heat, it is not generally used in baked or heated foods. According to the official aspartame Web site, it can be found in "more than 6,000 products including carbonated soft drinks, powdered soft drinks, chewing gum, confections, gelatins, dessert mixes, puddings and fillings, frozen desserts, yogurt, tabletop sweeteners, and some pharmaceuticals such as vitamins and sugar-free cough drops." Aspartame was approved as a food additive by the FDA in 1981.
Controversy
There appears to be more controversy over the safety of aspartame than any other artificial sweetener. Since its approval, 75 percent of all complaints reported to ARMS have been about aspartame. Only about one percent of people who experience a problem actually report it .
While no officially recognized studies have shown problems with aspartame, many consumer groups and individuals are speaking out against it. Aspartame is blamed for a number of health problems, including headaches, seizures, chronic fatigue syndrome, memory loss, and dizziness. It has also been associated with an increase in multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer.
Critics of aspartame claim that although aspartame's two amino acids are a natural part of our diets, when they are consumed normally in food they appear with many other amino acids that cancel out any negative effects. When these amino acids are on their own, as they are in aspartame, the concern is that they enter the central nervous system in abnormally high concentrations.
A similar problem allegedly occurs with the methanol (wood alcohol) that aspartame breaks down into when digested. When it occurs naturally in fruit juices and alcoholic beverages, methanol is always accompanied by higher amounts of ethanol, which acts as an antidote for methanol toxicity. Ten percent of aspartame is absorbed into the bloodstream as methanol. The Environmental Protection Agency set a recommended limit of only 7.8 milligrams per day of methanol, while a one-liter aspartame-sweetened beverage contains about 56 milligrams, or eight times the recommended amount.
In 2005 the European Journal of Oncology published an article about a study of aspartame that showed that it caused lymphomas and leukemia in female rats. The lowest level of aspartame that was still found to increase these risks in adults was equal to about eight cans of aspartame-containing soda a day (two for children). Brain tumors were also found in 12 of 1500 animals that received aspartame, while the animals that received no aspartame had no brain tumors.
On the other hand, many groups have also performed studies that show aspartame is safe and causes no health problems.
Next we'll explore acesulfame, a lesser-known sweetener.
Neotame
Neotame is similar to aspartame in that it is derived combination of aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Neotame is more stable, however, because the bond between the amino acids is harder to break down. It was developed over 20 years and is 8,000 times sweeter than sugar. According to the neotame Web site, only six milligrams are needed to sweeten a 12-ounce beverage.
Because neotame doesn't break down into phenylalanine like aspartame does, it is safe for people with PKU. Products containing neotame will also be able to be cooked or baked.
Neotame was approved by the FDA in 2002 for use in beverages, frozen deserts, yogurt, ice cream, chewing gum, candy, baked goods, toppings, fruit spreads, breakfast cereals and more. Because it's still new, there aren't many products that use neotame yet.
This meal replacement powder uses acesulfame as a sweetener.
Basics
Acesulfame (also known as acesulfame potassium, and acesulfame K) is a synthetic chemical that is roughly 200 times sweeter than sugar. It was discovered in 1967 by Hoechst AG, a German life-sciences company that is now part of Aventis. Our bodies can't metabolize it, which is why it's considered low calorie. Acesulfame is made from a process involving acetoacetic acid and its combination with potassium.
Use
The FDA approved acesulfame in 1988 and it is found in more than 4,000 products around the world. In the United States, acesulfame potassium has been approved for use in candies, tabletop sweeteners, chewing gums, beverages, dessert and dairy product mixes, baked goods, alcoholic beverages, syrups, refrigerated and frozen desserts, and sweet sauces and toppings. It can be found under the brand names Sweet One® and Sunett®. Acesulfame is often blended with other artificial sweeteners to produce a more sugar-like taste.
Controversy
In August of 1988, the Center for Science in the Public Interestformally asked for a stay of acesulfame's approval by the FDA because of "significant doubt" about its safety. CSPI claimed that the studies were flawed and did not sufficiently prove that acesulfame did not cause cancer. According to the CSPI Web site, "...acetoacetamide, a breakdown product of acesulfame, has been shown to affect the thyroid in rats, rabbits, and dogs. Administration of 1 percent and 5 percent acetoacetamide in the diet for three months caused benign thyroid tumors in rats. The rapid appearance of tumors raises serious questions about the chemical's carcinogenic potency".
Next, we'll learn about one of the newest artificial sweeteners: sucralose.
Sucralose
Basics
To create sucralose, three of the hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) groups in a sugar molecule are replaced with three chlorine (Cl) atoms. At that point it is no longer sugar -- it is an artificial sweetener that is 600 times sweeter than sugar.
Sucralose isn't metabolized by the body, so it has virtually no calories. The chlorine that prevents it from being absorbed by the body also gives it the ability to withstand enough heat to be used in baking. (Other sweeteners lose their sweetness if you try to bake with them.) It was approved by the FDA for use in foods and beverages in 1998.
Use
Sucralose, marketed as Splenda®, is the fastest growing artificial sweetener on the market. It can be found in everything from frozen desserts, to sodas, to cookies, gum, and candies. Sucralose is sold in bulk for baking and is available in a small yellow packet for sweetening your coffee or tea.
Controversy
Sucralose isn't as controversial as aspartame. However, the Food and Drug Administration's 1998 report that gave approval for sucralose also stated that it is "weakly mutagenic in a mouse lymphoma mutation assay." This means it caused minor genetic damages in mouse cells. In addition, it stated that one of the substances sucralose breaks down into when digested is also "weakly mutagenic in the Ames test." The Ames test is the standard method used to detect possible carcinogens.
The other controversy is over the way Sucralose is marketed as Splenda. Because of their tagline, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar," many people believe that Splenda is a natural sweetener and therefore healthier, which isn't the case. Because there have been no long-term studies, no one really knows if sucralose is healthier than other artificial sweeteners.
Next, we'll discuss tagatose, another new artificial sweetener.
Tagatose
Basics
Tagatose (or Natrulose®) is a new artificial sweetener manufactured from lactulose, or milk sugar. In one step, lactose is hydrolyzed (broken down into smaller molecules by using water) to glucose and galactose. In the second step, galactose is isomerized (changed to a molecule with the same chemical formula but a different atom arrangement) to D-tagatose by adding calcium hydroxide.
Tagatose was discovered when Gilbert Levin, founder of Spherix, wanted to find a new sweetener and thought a "left-handed" sugar might be the answer. In chemistry, a molecule can be chiral ("left-handed" or "right-handed") if it cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. For example, our hands are mirror images of one another and cannot be superimposed. Levin was accidentally sent D-tagatose, a "right-handed" molecule that structurally similar to L-fructose. It turned out to be just what he was looking for.
Tagatose has about 1.5 calories per gram, and does not significantly impact blood glucose or insulin levels. It can't be digested, so it passes through the body unabsorbed. It is equal in bulk and sweetness to sugar and can be combined with other artificial sweeteners to improve flavor and texture. The FDA accepted a Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) declaration submitted by the manufacturer of tagatose in 2001.
Use
Because it's so new, tagatose is not used in many products yet. Currently it is used in Diet Pepsi Slurpees®sold at 7-Eleven®, and Florida Gold®'s new Light and Tangy frozen juice beverage concentrate. It can be used in breakfast cereals, diet soft drinks, health bars, frozen yogurt/nonfat ice cream, soft confectionaries, hard confectionaries, frosting, and chewing gum.
Controversy
Again, the newness of tagatose means that there isn't much controversy about it yet. It isn't absorbed well and can cause GI distress if consumed in large quantities.
Next, we'll discuss sugar alcohols.
The Newest Sweeteners
Dihydrochalcones (DHCs) are noncaloric sweeteners derived from bioflavonoids of citrus fruits, and glycyrrhizin is a noncaloric extract of licorice root, 50 to 100 times sweeter than sugar. Both of these sweeteners are already approved for use as flavors and flavor enhancers.
Alitame (brand name Aclame®), is reported to be 2,000 times sweeter than sugar. A petition for its use has been filed with the FDA.
Sugar Alcohols
This sugarless gum uses sorbitol, a sugar alcohol, as a sweetener.




Basics
Sugar alcohols are made from adding hydrogen atoms to sugars. They don't contain ethanol, so they're not related to alcoholic beverages. They can occur naturally in foods such as fruits and berries. Sugar alcohols have about one-half to one-third fewer calories than regular sugar, because they convert to glucose more slowly. They don't usually cause sudden increases in blood sugar, so can be used in moderation by diabetics. Some people with Type I diabetes have found that their blood sugars will rise if they consume sugar alcohols in large amounts.
The caloric content varies by specific sugar alcohol. Erythritol, for example, is not absorbed as easily as others, so it essentially has no calories. Some of the other sugar alcohols can have almost as many calories as sugar, so they're not necessarily used in "diet" foods, but in sugar-free gum.
Use
Sugar alcohols are found in many sugar-free processed foods, such as hard candies, cookies, chewing gums, soft drinks, throat lozenges, toothpaste, and mouthwash. Look on product labels for mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, lactitol, isomalt, erythritol, maltitol, and hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH).
Controversy
The FDA requires products that contain what would equate to a daily dose of 50 grams or sorbitol or 20 grams of mannitol to be labeled with a "laxative effect" warning. This is because higher levels of sugar alcohols unabsorbed in the intestines can cause bloating, gas, and diaarrohea.
(link word: Saccharin, FDA, sugar alcohol, mannitol, sorbitol, , tagatose, sweetners, DHCs, Sucralose, Acesulfame, Cyclamate , Neotame, Erythritol, phenylketonuria (PKU), Aspartame, Senomyx, Stevia, SweetLeaf®)







Artificial Sweeteners
Introduction to How Artificial Sweeteners Work
If you're trying to lose weight, avoiding sugar is one of the best ways to reduce your intake. Many dieters use artificial sweeteners and artificially sweetened foods as a way to cut sugar without eliminating all things sweet. However, not all artificial sweeteners are calorie free. In fact, some have almost as many calories as sugar. They're also somewhat controversial. Although the manufacturers' Web sites and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) say that artificial sweeteners are perfectly safe, some consumer groups and physicians disagree.
Even if you try to avoid artificial sweeteners, you may still be consuming them in products you've never considered. Did you know that artificial sweeteners are in your toothpaste, mouthwash, chewable vitamins and cough drops?
In this article, we'll look at how artificial sweeteners came about, how they're used and how they're approved. We'll also examine the individual sweeteners and learn about the controversies surrounding them.
Sweet Thing
Stevia, sold under the brand name SweetLeaf®
Sweetness doesn't just come from sugar -- there are hundreds of organic, synthetic, and inorganic compounds that taste sweet. Many plants contain sugar derivatives known as glycosides. Stevia, for example, is a plant high in glycosides that has been used for centuries to sweeten foods and drinks.
The degree of sweetness we taste depends on how well the receptors in our tongue interact with the molecules. The stronger the interaction, the sweeter we perceive the taste.
Taste scientists at a company called Senomyx have identified the taste bud receptor that is responsible for finding what we consider "sweet." Sugar and artificial sweeteners bind to this receptor, creating the sweet sensation that we get when we eat them. The receptors are found on the surfaces of cells all over the tongue and inside the mouth. They send messages to the brain to tell it that we're eating something sweet.
Artificial sweeteners are compounds that have been found to elicit the same (or a similar) "sweet" flavor we get from sugars. Some are low-calorie because they so much sweeter than sugar that only a tiny amount is needed. Others are low-calorie (or no calorie) because our bodies can't metabolize them. They simply pass through our digestive system without being absorbed.

Next, we'll learn about the history and use of artificial sweeteners.
Stevia
Stevia is a natural sweetener. It is extracted from a plant native to Brazil and Paraguay and has been used as a sweetener in other countries for centuries. Stevia is roughly 300 times sweeter than sugar and is not metabolized by our bodies, so it has no calories.

While advocates of Stevia quote studies that show no adverse reactions or effects of the sweetener, other studies have shown that Stevia may lead to lower production of sperm and fewer and smaller offspring. The FDA has not approved Stevia for use in food, but it can be sold as a supplement.

Artificial Sweetener Basics
The first artificial sweetener, was discovered in 1879 by a scientist who failed to wash his hands before dinner and noticed that his fingers tasted sweet. Other artificial sweeteners have also been discovered simply because scientists licked their fingers while testing a new drug or smoked a cigarette that was placed near a sweet-tasting compound. Poor personal hygiene has been the dieting industry's windfall.
These laboratory discoveries underscore the fact that these sweeteners are artificial, regardless of how they're advertised. Splenda®, the newest sweetener, has been sued by the sugar industry for trying to make people think it is more natural than it really is. In a study by the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), 57 percent of people thought Splenda was a natural product, not an artificial sweetener.
Why are there so many different artificial sweeteners? The answer is that there is no one sweetener that can be used in every product that calls for sweetness. Sucralose (Splenda), for example, is used in baked goods because it can withstand heat. Aspartame is found in "light" and sugar-free dairy products like yogurt. Sugar alcohols like xylitol and sorbitol are routinely used in sugar-free ice cream. The tricky part about sugar alcohols is that while they don't affect blood sugar or promote tooth decay, they have almost as many calories as sugar.
In addition to "light" and "sugar-free" food products, you can find artificial sweeteners in liquid and chewable medications (particularly children's medications), throat lozenges, cough drops, chewable vitamins, toothpaste, mouthwash, and anything else that could benefit from a little sweetness but shouldn't use sugar. Some products that could use sugar use artificial sweeteners simply because they're less expensive. A recent report from the Food Commission (UK) found that some orange sodas that were not marketed as "diet" were using blends of artificial sweeteners. Aspartame costs only two cents per liter of beverage, compared with six cents per liter for sugar.
If you don't want to ingest artificial sweeteners, you'll have to check ingredient labels and make sure you know the "real" names as opposed to the product names.

Next, we'll look at some of the controversy surrounding artificial sweeteners.
Sweet Future
Scientists at Senomyx are trying to find chemicals that enhance the efficiency of the sweetness receptor. They have a lab full of tiny manufactured taste buds that glow green when in contact with sugars. By testing different chemicals for sweetness by using the "taste buds," they hope to find the one that will taste like sugar but without the aftertaste -- and hopefully without side effects.
Artificial Sweetener Controversy
Fear of artificial sweeteners rose shortly after the first sweeteners were introduced in the food market. When public health trends, such as an increase in certain types of cancer, show up, scientists look to newly-introduced substances. Saccharin and cyclamate have been around the longest, and both were eventually linked to cancer in laboratory mice and rats. Studies associating saccharin with bladder cancer may have spurred the long-term perception that all artificial sweeteners could cause cancer. The press is often blamed for reporting on possible carcinogenic effects without having the scientific evidence to back it up.
In addition to cancer, thousands of Web sites and forums have information on other dangers and side effects associated with aspartame, sucralose, and other artificial sweeteners. Multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors, nervous disorders and other health problems have been blamed on them. Aspartame is getting most of the criticism, but sucralose is also under scrutiny.
The FDA stands behind the products that it has approved. A question and answer page on the FDA Web site includes the following:
All consumer complaints related to the sweetener [aspartame] have been investigated as thoroughly as possible by federal authorities for more than five years, in part under FDA's Adverse Reaction Monitoring System. In addition, scientific studies conducted during aspartame's pre-approval phase failed to show that it causes any adverse reactions in adults or children. Individuals who have concerns about possible adverse reactions to aspartame or other substances should contact their physicians.
Medical groups such as the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association also approve of the use of artificial sweeteners by diabetics and for weight control.
If diet soft drinks and sugar-free foods are readily available, why are so many people still overweight? A recent study by researchers at Purdue University found that drinking diet soft drinks might actually be part of the problem. Professors in the Department of Psychological Sciences found that artificial sweeteners may interfere with the body's natural ability to "count" calories. Our bodies' ability to match how many calories we need with how many calories we take in is partially based on how sweet a food is. The sweeter and denser it is, the higher it is in calories. Our bodies use this as a gauge to tell us when to stop eating.

Artificial sweeteners, however, throw a wrench into this process. By eating and drinking foods and beverages that use artificial sweeteners (and therefore have lower calories), we may be retraining our bodies to no longer associate sweetness with higher calories. That means that when we eat or drink foods sweetened with real sugar, our bodies miscalculate the true calories associated with that food. As a result, we consume more calories.
In the Purdue study, rats that had been given both artificially-sweetened liquids and sugar-sweetened liquids for 10 days proceeded to eat more of a sugar-sweetened (high-calorie) chocolate snack than rats that had been given only the sugar-sweetened liquids for 10 days. The rats that experienced the inconsistent relationship between sweet taste and calories had lost some of their ability to compensate for the calories in the food.
The National Soft Drink Association argued that the study was flawed and that many other studies showed that the use of low-calorie sweeteners does promote weight loss.
In the next section, we'll discuss how artificial sweeteners make it in the food chain.
From Lab to Kitchen
The Delaney Clause in the Food Additives Amendment of 1958 states that no food additive can be considered safe if it is found to induce cancer when ingested by humans or animals. This is tested by feeding large dosages of the additive (in this case artificial sweeteners) to small numbers of rats and mice.
Large dosages are used to compensate for the fact that a relatively small number of animals are used -- perhaps a few hundred. The large dosages also compensate for the possibility that rodents may be less sensitive to the chemical than people might be. Although it may seem that only a large dose of any chemical can cause cancer, small doses can too -- just less often.
Companies that want to market a new sweetener (or any food additive) must petition the FDA for approval, unless the new sweetener is made up of components generally recognized as safe (GRAS). The FDA usually requires strong evidence, including animal studies, to show that the sweetener will not cause harmful effects if humans consume unexpected quantities of it. Companies may also submit studies of the additive's affect on humans.
When deciding whether an additive should be approved, the FDA considers its composition and properties. For instance, does the sweetener break down into harmful by-products? What is the amount likely to be consumed, and what are the probable long-term effects? Because they can't determine absolute safety, the FDA has to decide if the sweetener is safe based on the best scientific knowledge available.
If a sweetener is approved, the FDA determines the types of foods in which it can be used, the maximum amounts to be used, and how it should be identified on food labels. It is then said to be GRAS. They FDA continually monitors consumption as well as any new research on the sweetener's safety to assure that its use continues to be within safe limits.
The Adverse Reaction Monitoring System (ARMS) serves as an ongoing safety check for all food additives. The system monitors and investigates all complaints that are believed to be related to specific food additives. If reported adverse reactions represent a real public health hazard, the FDA will take action.
Next, we'll take an in-depth look at some artificial sweeteners, starting with saccharin. What's Legal?
There are four legal categories under the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) for substances added to foods:
Food additives: Substances with no proven safety track record have to be reviewed and approved by the FDA before they can be used in any food product
Generally recognized as safe (GRAS): Substances that do have a proven track in foods based on a history of use before 1958 or on published scientific evidence do not need to be approved by the FDA prior to use
Prior-sanctioned: Substances that were assumed to be safe by either the FDA or the U.S. Department of Agriculture before 1958, to be used in a specific food
Color additives: Dyes that are used in foods, drugs, cosmetics, and medical devices must be approved by the FDA before they can be used
Saccharin
Cyclamate
Cyclamate was accidentally discovered in 1937 by a graduate student at the University of Illinois. It is 30 to 50 times sweeter than sugar. The FDA banned cyclamate in 1970 after reports that it caused cancer in animals, but there is currently a petition for re-approval.
Cyclamate is still used in over 50 countries, including Canada (where it is the sweetener in Sweet n' Low). Ironically, saccharin is banned in Canada except for use by diabetics.
Basics
Saccharin (the Latin word for sugar) is a synthetic chemical that was discovered in 1879 and was the first artificial sweetener. Two chemists at Johns Hopkins University discovered saccharine when a vessel boiled over in the lab where they were creating new chemical dyes from coal tar derivatives. One of the chemists forgot to wash his hands before eating and noticed that his fingers tasted sweet. Saccharin is 300 times sweeter than sugar and not metabolized by the body, so it has no calories.

Use
There are very few products that contain saccharin these days. Fountain Diet Coke® and Pepsi® use a blend of saccharin and aspartame, as does Tab®. It's also still available as Sweet 'N Low®, a tabletop sweetener in the familiar pink packet.
Controversy
Saccharin has had a very controversial past. The FDA tried to ban it in 1977 because some animal studies showed that it caused cancer (mainly bladder cancer, but also uterine, ovarian, skin, and others). Saccharin stayed on the market because of pressure from the diet food industry (and the dieters themselves). However, it carried a warning label that stated it had been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals until the late 1990s. The Calorie Control Council argued that people don't develop bladder cancer in the same way that rats do, so the warning label should be removed.
Tab is one of the few products
On the market to contain saccharin.
In 2000, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) stated that people who used saccharin had no greater risk of bladder cancer than the population as a whole. People who were heavy saccharin users (six or more servings of saccharin or two or more 8-ounce servings of diet drink daily) had "some evidence of an increased risk of bladder cancer, particularly for those who heavily ingested the sweetener as a tabletop sweetener or through diet sodas." Because of this study and other research with laboratory animals, it was decided that saccharin was not a major risk factor for bladder cancer in humans. Saccharin was removed from the NIH's list of carcinogens and Congress agreed to remove the warning requirement from products containing it.
Next, we'll learn about aspartame, another controversial sweetener.
Aspartame
Basics
Aspartame (sold under the brand names Equal®, NutraSweet®, and NatraTaste®) is derived from a combination of two amino acids: aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It was discovered in 1965 by chemist Jim Schlatter of the pharmaceutical company G. D. Searle & Co. (now a part of Pfizer). Schlatter licked his finger to pick up a piece of paper while testing a new anti-ulcer drug.

Aspartame is 180 to 200 times sweeter than sugar, so only very tiny amounts are necessary to sweeten a food or beverage. When digested, aspartame breaks down into three components: aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and methanol (wood alcohol).
People with the rare genetic disorder phenylketonuria (PKU) should avoid aspartame because their bodies are deficient in the enzyme that breaks down phenylalanine. If they consume foods or beverages containing significant amounts of phenylalanine, it can build up in their bodies and can cause mental impairment and possibly brain damage. Newborns are routinely checked for PKU.
Use
Because aspartame breaks down in heat, it is not generally used in baked or heated foods. According to the official aspartame Web site, it can be found in "more than 6,000 products including carbonated soft drinks, powdered soft drinks, chewing gum, confections, gelatins, dessert mixes, puddings and fillings, frozen desserts, yogurt, tabletop sweeteners, and some pharmaceuticals such as vitamins and sugar-free cough drops." Aspartame was approved as a food additive by the FDA in 1981.
Controversy
There appears to be more controversy over the safety of aspartame than any other artificial sweetener. Since its approval, 75 percent of all complaints reported to ARMS have been about aspartame. Only about one percent of people who experience a problem actually report it .
While no officially recognized studies have shown problems with aspartame, many consumer groups and individuals are speaking out against it. Aspartame is blamed for a number of health problems, including headaches, seizures, chronic fatigue syndrome, memory loss, and dizziness. It has also been associated with an increase in multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer.
Critics of aspartame claim that although aspartame's two amino acids are a natural part of our diets, when they are consumed normally in food they appear with many other amino acids that cancel out any negative effects. When these amino acids are on their own, as they are in aspartame, the concern is that they enter the central nervous system in abnormally high concentrations.
A similar problem allegedly occurs with the methanol (wood alcohol) that aspartame breaks down into when digested. When it occurs naturally in fruit juices and alcoholic beverages, methanol is always accompanied by higher amounts of ethanol, which acts as an antidote for methanol toxicity. Ten percent of aspartame is absorbed into the bloodstream as methanol. The Environmental Protection Agency set a recommended limit of only 7.8 milligrams per day of methanol, while a one-liter aspartame-sweetened beverage contains about 56 milligrams, or eight times the recommended amount.
In 2005 the European Journal of Oncology published an article about a study of aspartame that showed that it caused lymphomas and leukemia in female rats. The lowest level of aspartame that was still found to increase these risks in adults was equal to about eight cans of aspartame-containing soda a day (two for children). Brain tumors were also found in 12 of 1500 animals that received aspartame, while the animals that received no aspartame had no brain tumors.
On the other hand, many groups have also performed studies that show aspartame is safe and causes no health problems.
Next we'll explore acesulfame, a lesser-known sweetener.
Neotame
Neotame is similar to aspartame in that it is derived combination of aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Neotame is more stable, however, because the bond between the amino acids is harder to break down. It was developed over 20 years and is 8,000 times sweeter than sugar. According to the neotame Web site, only six milligrams are needed to sweeten a 12-ounce beverage.
Because neotame doesn't break down into phenylalanine like aspartame does, it is safe for people with PKU. Products containing neotame will also be able to be cooked or baked.
Neotame was approved by the FDA in 2002 for use in beverages, frozen deserts, yogurt, ice cream, chewing gum, candy, baked goods, toppings, fruit spreads, breakfast cereals and more. Because it's still new, there aren't many products that use neotame yet.
This meal replacement powder uses acesulfame as a sweetener.
Basics
Acesulfame (also known as acesulfame potassium, and acesulfame K) is a synthetic chemical that is roughly 200 times sweeter than sugar. It was discovered in 1967 by Hoechst AG, a German life-sciences company that is now part of Aventis. Our bodies can't metabolize it, which is why it's considered low calorie. Acesulfame is made from a process involving acetoacetic acid and its combination with potassium.
Use
The FDA approved acesulfame in 1988 and it is found in more than 4,000 products around the world. In the United States, acesulfame potassium has been approved for use in candies, tabletop sweeteners, chewing gums, beverages, dessert and dairy product mixes, baked goods, alcoholic beverages, syrups, refrigerated and frozen desserts, and sweet sauces and toppings. It can be found under the brand names Sweet One® and Sunett®. Acesulfame is often blended with other artificial sweeteners to produce a more sugar-like taste.
Controversy
In August of 1988, the Center for Science in the Public Interestformally asked for a stay of acesulfame's approval by the FDA because of "significant doubt" about its safety. CSPI claimed that the studies were flawed and did not sufficiently prove that acesulfame did not cause cancer. According to the CSPI Web site, "...acetoacetamide, a breakdown product of acesulfame, has been shown to affect the thyroid in rats, rabbits, and dogs. Administration of 1 percent and 5 percent acetoacetamide in the diet for three months caused benign thyroid tumors in rats. The rapid appearance of tumors raises serious questions about the chemical's carcinogenic potency".
Next, we'll learn about one of the newest artificial sweeteners: sucralose.
Sucralose
Basics
To create sucralose, three of the hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) groups in a sugar molecule are replaced with three chlorine (Cl) atoms. At that point it is no longer sugar -- it is an artificial sweetener that is 600 times sweeter than sugar.
Sucralose isn't metabolized by the body, so it has virtually no calories. The chlorine that prevents it from being absorbed by the body also gives it the ability to withstand enough heat to be used in baking. (Other sweeteners lose their sweetness if you try to bake with them.) It was approved by the FDA for use in foods and beverages in 1998.
Use
Sucralose, marketed as Splenda®, is the fastest growing artificial sweetener on the market. It can be found in everything from frozen desserts, to sodas, to cookies, gum, and candies. Sucralose is sold in bulk for baking and is available in a small yellow packet for sweetening your coffee or tea.
Controversy
Sucralose isn't as controversial as aspartame. However, the Food and Drug Administration's 1998 report that gave approval for sucralose also stated that it is "weakly mutagenic in a mouse lymphoma mutation assay." This means it caused minor genetic damages in mouse cells. In addition, it stated that one of the substances sucralose breaks down into when digested is also "weakly mutagenic in the Ames test." The Ames test is the standard method used to detect possible carcinogens.
The other controversy is over the way Sucralose is marketed as Splenda. Because of their tagline, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar," many people believe that Splenda is a natural sweetener and therefore healthier, which isn't the case. Because there have been no long-term studies, no one really knows if sucralose is healthier than other artificial sweeteners.
Next, we'll discuss tagatose, another new artificial sweetener.
Tagatose
Basics
Tagatose (or Natrulose®) is a new artificial sweetener manufactured from lactulose, or milk sugar. In one step, lactose is hydrolyzed (broken down into smaller molecules by using water) to glucose and galactose. In the second step, galactose is isomerized (changed to a molecule with the same chemical formula but a different atom arrangement) to D-tagatose by adding calcium hydroxide.
Tagatose was discovered when Gilbert Levin, founder of Spherix, wanted to find a new sweetener and thought a "left-handed" sugar might be the answer. In chemistry, a molecule can be chiral ("left-handed" or "right-handed") if it cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. For example, our hands are mirror images of one another and cannot be superimposed. Levin was accidentally sent D-tagatose, a "right-handed" molecule that structurally similar to L-fructose. It turned out to be just what he was looking for.
Tagatose has about 1.5 calories per gram, and does not significantly impact blood glucose or insulin levels. It can't be digested, so it passes through the body unabsorbed. It is equal in bulk and sweetness to sugar and can be combined with other artificial sweeteners to improve flavor and texture. The FDA accepted a Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) declaration submitted by the manufacturer of tagatose in 2001.
Use
Because it's so new, tagatose is not used in many products yet. Currently it is used in Diet Pepsi Slurpees®sold at 7-Eleven®, and Florida Gold®'s new Light and Tangy frozen juice beverage concentrate. It can be used in breakfast cereals, diet soft drinks, health bars, frozen yogurt/nonfat ice cream, soft confectionaries, hard confectionaries, frosting, and chewing gum.

Controversy
Again, the newness of tagatose means that there isn't much controversy about it yet. It isn't absorbed well and can cause GI distress if consumed in large quantities.
Next, we'll discuss sugar alcohols.
The Newest Sweeteners

Dihydrochalcones (DHCs) are noncaloric sweeteners derived from bioflavonoids of citrus fruits, and glycyrrhizin is a noncaloric extract of licorice root, 50 to 100 times sweeter than sugar. Both of these sweeteners are already approved for use as flavors and flavor enhancers.
Alitame (brand name Aclame®), is reported to be 2,000 times sweeter than sugar. A petition for its use has been filed with the FDA.
Sugar Alcohols
This sugarless gum uses sorbitol, a sugar alcohol, as a sweetener.




Basics
Sugar alcohols are made from adding hydrogen atoms to sugars. They don't contain ethanol, so they're not related to alcoholic beverages. They can occur naturally in foods such as fruits and berries. Sugar alcohols have about one-half to one-third fewer calories than regular sugar, because they convert to glucose more slowly. They don't usually cause sudden increases in blood sugar, so can be used in moderation by diabetics. Some people with Type I diabetes have found that their blood sugars will rise if they consume sugar alcohols in large amounts.
The caloric content varies by specific sugar alcohol. Erythritol, for example, is not absorbed as easily as others, so it essentially has no calories. Some of the other sugar alcohols can have almost as many calories as sugar, so they're not necessarily used in "diet" foods, but in sugar-free gum.

Use
Sugar alcohols are found in many sugar-free processed foods, such as hard candies, cookies, chewing gums, soft drinks, throat lozenges, toothpaste, and mouthwash. Look on product labels for mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, lactitol, isomalt, erythritol, maltitol, and hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH).

Controversy
The FDA requires products that contain what would equate to a daily dose of 50 grams or sorbitol or 20 grams of mannitol to be labeled with a "laxative effect" warning. This is because higher levels of sugar alcohols unabsorbed in the intestines can cause bloating, gas, and diaarrohea.